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1、GoverningthecommonsinthenewmillenniumIntroductionTheimpactofhumansonglobalenvironmentalchangeisbecomingincreasinglyapparent,withconsequencesrangingfromimpactsonclimatechangetodeclinesinbiodiversity,soildegradationandforestdegradation.Governingnaturalresourcessustainablythusrepresentsamajo
2、rchallengeforthefuture.Givenincreasesinpopulationandinlevelsofhumanconsumption,howdowedevelopadiverseandrobustsetofinstitutionsforthesustainableuseofnaturalresources?TheDebateInitiatedbyGarrettHardinInhisinfluentialarticleinScienceon“TheTragedyoftheCommons,”GarrettHardinpresentedalogictha
3、thepresumedwasgeneralandreferredtoallcommon-poolnaturalresourcesthatwerenoteithergovernmentownedorprivatelyowned.Heenvisionedapastureopentoall,inwhicheachherderreceivedanimmediateindividualbenefitfromaddinganimalstograzeonthepastureandsufferedonlydelayedcosts(withhisfellowherders)fromover
4、grazing.Hardinconcluded:“Thereinisthetragedy.Eachmanislockedintoasystemthatcompelshimtoincreasehisherdwithoutlimit—inaworldthatislimited.Ruinisthedestinationtowardwhichallmenrush,eachpursuinghisownbestinterestinasocietythatbelievesinthefreedomofthecommons”(Hardin,1968:1244).Hardin’sconclu
5、sionwasimmediatelyacceptedbymanyscholars.Hisarticleisstillrequiredreadinginmostenvironmentalscienceprogramsandfrequentlyassignedmultipletimesduringanundergraduateprogram.Intheearlydaysofthescholarlydiscussion,scholarstendedtodeveloptheoreticalpapersthatpositednarrowlyrationalresourceusers
6、thatdidnottakealong-termviewoftheproblemstheyfaced.Somehow,governmentofficials,ontheotherhand,werepositedasbeingabletotakethepublicinterestintoaccountanddeveloppoliciesthatwouldavertthetragedyofthecommons.PolicymakerstendedtoacceptHardin’sresultsandthoughttheconclusionsmadeitobligatoryfor
7、themtotakepositiveactionstoimposepoliciesontheusersofpastures,forests,fisheries,watersystemsandothercommon-poolresourcesintheirdomain.Governmentofficialsdidnotexaminewhethertheusersoftheseresourceshaddevelopedrulesoftheirownovertime,becauseitwassimplyassumedthatreso
